![]() Gram-positive bacteria Inflammation Innate immunity Lipoteichoic acid Toll-like receptor. Teichoic acids (TA) are anionic polymers found in Gram-positive bacteria CW and are made of polyglycerol phosphate units (approximately 2030 repeats). Furthermore, some CWA proteins promote specialization for host-species or mediate colonization of specific anatomical niches within a host. In particular, bacterial cell wall-associated (CWA) proteins play key roles in both colonization and pathogenesis. TAs comprise up to 50 of the cell wall dry weight 1, 2. Gram-positive bacterial pathogens have an array of proteins on their cell surface that mediate interactions with the host environment. The word teichoic originates from the Greek word tekhos (), meaning wall. Emphasis is placed on differential immunostimulating activities of LTAs of various Gram-positive bacteria at the molecular level. Teichoic acids (TAs) are specific polymers on Gram-positive bacterial cell surfaces and are not found in Gram-negative bacterial cells. This review provides an overview of LTA structure and host recognition by TLR2 that leads to the activation of innate immune responses. Although numerous studies have tried to identify the molecular basis for the pathophysiology of Gram-positive bacterial infection, the exact role of LTA during the infection has not been clearly elucidated. In Gram-negative bacteria, EVs are produced by the pinching off of the outer membrane however, how EVs escape the thick cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi is still unknown. However, excessive immune responses may result in the inflammatory sequelae that are involved in severe diseases such as sepsis. ![]() It is known that LTA is recognized by Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), leading to the initiation of innate immune responses and further development of adaptive immunity. One of the most abundant polymers displayed on the surface of Gram-positive bacteria is wall teichoic acid (WTA), a negatively charged carbohydrate polymer that. ![]() Lipoteichoic acid (LTA), a major cell wall component of Gram-positive bacteria, is associated with various inflammatory diseases ranging from minor skin diseases to severe sepsis. ![]()
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